Caste is still an extremely important term in political and social life India. What is the origin of caste? Was it just a British invention as a form of grouping into Varna? Were there any other groupings in India before the British? A look at the history of caste.
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The word 'caste' comes from the Protugues root 'casta' meaning 'race', 'kind', 'cast' or 'mould'. When the Portuguese first arrived in the East, they used casta to describe the religious and social distinctions as observed among the Hindu people.
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The greatest Portuguese poet Luís de Camões wrote in his epic Os Lusíadas about the people of Malabar where we used the phrase "a casta antiqua" to describe the prevalent groupings. This was the first usage from where the modern word 'caste' is derived.
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In Canto VII, XXXVII, published in 1572, Camoens writes about the interactions among the groups. See his usage of the word casta.
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In 1880, Robert French Duff, Knight Commander of the Portuguese Royal Order translated the Lusiad into English at Lisbon. In his translation, he struggled with the concept and represented it as both caste and race. See his translation
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This social groupings known as Jāti in Indian languages, were then represented as castes in English. Next, the British Census Commissioner Herbert Hope Risley decided to group the castes into one or the other Varnas for census purposes in 1901.
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However, it's well known from Indian history that castes do not specifically belong to any particular Varna. A while back, I wrote how the Kayastha caste, for example, claims to originate from 3 of the 4 Varnas.
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The British definitely mixed the castes, which were the social groupings observed as 'Jāti,' with the Varnas mentioned in the Hindu Dharma texts. However, this does not mean that the groups/Jāti s didn't exist in India before the British.
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The presence of Jāti/group as a social construct in the Indian society was first described by Megasthenes in 3rd century BC where he used the term 'γενος', or 'gens' in Latin (modern genus), to imply race/nation, as the prevalent grouping among the Hindu people.
To be contd.
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To be contd.
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Let's now start to investigate the evolution of Varna and caste/jati (which are 2 separate entities) over the ages in India. We'll look at the Vedic age first (up to ~600BC) from sources such as Vedas, Brahmanas and Samhitas, then at the post-Vedic age (up to CE) from sources
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such as the epics and Buddhist literature, next at the age of Dharma Shastras, ending around 800 CE and then the modern age. Through these periods, we will see how Varnas and jatis progressed and how the interactions between them evolved.
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Firstly, Vedas don't mention caste, it mentions Varnas. The origins can be traced to the famous Purusha Sukta hymns in the Rigveda where the 4 orders are mentioned - Brahmana, Rajanya (Kshatriya), Vaishya and Sudra. This famous hymn describes the cosmic intelligence
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In Rigveda 10.7.90.12, the Brahmanas were described to be His mouth, Rajanya his arms, Vaishyas his thighs and Shudras assigned to feet. See the original Sanskrit and its English translation.
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Note that later colonial authors interpreted this Vedic hymn to denote the social order at that time, though no such deliberate interpretation is directly given in the hymn. See Dr. Ghurye acknowledge that in his book 'Caste and Race in India'
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The Taittiriya Samhita later adds interpretative additions to the origins of 4 classes. The Brahmins were declared to be the chief, as they are created from the mouth, playing on the Sanskrit usage of 'mukha' meaning both mouth and chief. The Rajanyas were vigorous and formed
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from vigor. The Vaisyas were meant to be eaten, meaning liable for taxation and Sudras is supposed to be transporter of all, and hence created from feet.
The divine origin of the 4 varnas in Vedas doesn't provide any social regulations as the Rigveda is mostly liturgical.
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The divine origin of the 4 varnas in Vedas doesn't provide any social regulations as the Rigveda is mostly liturgical.
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The passage of Visvantara and the S'yaparna Brahmans in Aitareya Brahmana (vii. 27) shows that there was Varna mobility in a few generations. If a Kshatriya drinks the Soma in a sacrifice, one like a Brahmana will be born in his line and in 2-3 generations will be a Brahmin
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Note, that these classes are referred in later literature as 'Varnas' but Rigveda never applies the word 'Varna' to these classes. There, it's only 2 varnas - the Arya varna and the Dasa varna. Later Satapatha Brahmana, for example, mentions 4 classes as 4 Varnas
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The Vedic Age literature didn't have the defining attribute of later stages - which is impurity of Varnas. Instead, it mostly dealt with supremacy of one over the other. The Rigveda had no such regulations. Most such prescriptions come from Satapatha and Aitareya Brahmanas
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Some examples: A Sudra shouldn't milk the cow whose milk will be used in fire-oblation (Kathaka Samhita, xxxi. 2); Brahmana and Kshatriya are superior than Vis (Pancavimsa Brahmana, ii. 8, 2); the king rules by the authority of the Brahmin (Satapatha Brahmana).
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Apart from the 4 orders, Rigveda separately mentions occupations like blacksmith, leather-worker, barber, physician, goldsmith, merchant and chariot-builder. None of the occupations was described as a separate class or assigned to an explicit Varna.
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Among the later castes, Chandalas are mentioned in the Yajurveda and referenced as degraded people. Later period expanded Chandalas to be born of a Sudra father and a Brahmin mother. Same happens for Paulkasas. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad describes them as a despised race of men
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Later period's literature expanded the group to be offsprings of Nishada/Sudra by a Kshatriya woman.
Let's start summarizing the descriptions of the Varnas as societal orders from the Vedic age literature before moving on to the next period.
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Let's start summarizing the descriptions of the Varnas as societal orders from the Vedic age literature before moving on to the next period.
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3 classes of early Rigveda became 4 groups in later Vedic age. Mobility between the classes wasn't impossible. 1st 3 orders were important in religious rituals. Brahmins and Kshatriyas were the important orders in society. The orders were habitually endogamous, not strictly
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Next, we'll look at the post-Vedic literature from authors such as Vasishtha, Gautama, Baudhayana, Kautilya and epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana and learn how the orders and interactions gradually evolved.
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In the next phase, the evolution of interactions between castes and Varnas becomes known from the Dharmasutras by Vasishtha, Gautama, Apastamba, and Baudhayana. In addition, the Arthasashtra by Kautilya is a valuable repository of the practices of that period in India.
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In this period, the growing superiority of the Brahmins along with gradual degradation of the Sudras became evident. Vasishtha wrote that the 3 lower castes should live acc. to the teaching of Brahmins and the king should also regulate his duties accordingly.
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Kautilya suggested that to avoid calamities such as fire, flood and pestilence, people should worship gods and Brahmins
Source: Arthasashtra, Book IX, Shamasastry's English translation
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Source: Arthasashtra, Book IX, Shamasastry's English translation
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In a society where age was the greatest consideration for respect, a ten-old year Brahmin is said to be like the father of hundred-year old Kshatriya.
Source: Mahabharata Ansusashana Parva, 12. 22
Apastamba also wrote the superiority of a child-Brahmin over an aged Kshatriya
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Source: Mahabharata Ansusashana Parva, 12. 22
Apastamba also wrote the superiority of a child-Brahmin over an aged Kshatriya
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The privileges bestowed to Brahmins by the Dhamrastura writers were plentiful. Killing a Brahmin was regarded as heinous sin (mahapataka). A Brahmin was exempt from corporal punishment, except high treason (Kautilya). The estate of heirless lower 3 varnas should be distributed..
to Brahmins by the king (Gautama and Baudhayana). At the other extreme, the Sudra was relegated to the lowest of social treatments. A Sudra will use the shoes and garments of the upper varnas and eat their leftover food (Gautama).
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The impurity of the interactions between Varnas was a hallmark of this age. Even if a Brahmin had to take a Sudra's occupation out of necessity, he shouldn't mix with them (Gautama). If a Sudra sits or converses with men of 1st 3 varnas, he will be corporally punished (Apastamba)
Apastamba says that a Sudra committing adultery with females of the 3 varnas should be capitally punished. Kautilya restricts such punishments only for violations on Brahmin females. If a Sudra calls himself a Brahmin, his eyes shall be destroyed or he should be fined.
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Many such social regulations regarding rights and interactions goes on to show the gradual declination of the social standing of the Sudras of this age. Note that the literature of this period were still dealing with the Varnas and not exclusively with the modern castes.
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However, when Gautama wrote that men of different Varnas who live according to the duties of Varnashrama are born in excellent countries, caste (jati) and familes, he directly connects Varnas with caste through the theory of karma and rebirth.
Source: Gautama 12.29
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Source: Gautama 12.29
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The post-Vedic period continued the stratification of the society along caste lines derived from occupational groups, making their own rules. Gautama wrote that cultivators, traders, etc. have authority to lay their own rules, that are not opposed to sacred records.
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Source: Gautama 2.2.20-21, see Buhler's English translation along with the original. 'Desh', 'jati', 'kul' are translated as country, caste and family.
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The societal norms started differentiating between all the castes and sub-castes. Higher the caste, shorter the period of impurity at birth and death (Vasishtha). Cremation grounds of higher castes and lower castes were in different localities (Gautama).
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The most notable development of this period is the idea that an 'impure' person spreads pollution from his touch and even by his approach to members of higher castes. The maximum extent of this expression is evident in context of the class called 'Chandala'.
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On touching a Chandala, one must bathe with clothes on (Gautama and Baudhayana). People should throw food outside for dog, cat, and Chandalas after everyone's meals (Vasishtha). It's an offence to speak or look at a Chandala (Apastamba).
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At this point it is important to note that Varna and caste considerations started diverging for livelihood. Gautama allows a Brahmin in agriculture and trade as long as he employs servants to carry those works. Brahmins followed the professions of Kshatriyas or trade handicrafts
Kautilya assigns Sudras the work of artisans, court-bards, agriculture and trade. The Kambojas and the Saurashtras lived by both agriculture and trade as well as take up arms. There were instances of different Varnas taking up occupations outside their duties.
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Endogamy or marriage within own varna was most popular, but inter-varna marriage was still possible. The lawgivers allowed males of higher varnas to marry females of lower varnas, but children of those marriages had less rights than children of equal marriages.
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In this context, it's important to know about the term 'Savarna'. Law-givers of this period defined this term in relation to inter-Varna marriage. Baudhayana defines 'savarna' as child of a male of a higher varna and female of the next lower Varna, meaning having equal Varna
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That 'savarna' meant equal varna was clear from his writings that a child of Brahmin male and Kshatriya female was a Brahmin, a child of Kshatriya male and Vaishya female was a Kshatriya. Next, Gautama brought a slight restriction to this.
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Gautama calls a child of a Brahmin male and Kshatriya female as 'savarna', but doesn't give that name to the offspring of a Kshatriya male and Vaishya female. Kautilya also agrees with Vaudhayana but doesn't provide that name to child of Vaishya male and Sudra female.
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Chanakya in his Arthashastra called the children of Brahmin and Kshatriya males with females of Kshatriya and Vaishyas as 'savarnas' but doesn't explicitly calls them as Brahmins and Kshatriyas. The opposite term of 'savarna' that Kautilya used was 'asavarna'.
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The other inter-varna marriage, 'pratiloma' between a lower Varna male and a higher Varma female was also mentioned. Baudhayana gave different names to such offsprings, but Gautama wrote that they are outside the sacred law.
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The next phase of Hindu Dharma literature developed 2 new things - glorification of gifts to Brahmins and the idea of imaginary hells as punishments by rethinking the theory of rebirth. Rig Veda had dana-stutis praising gift-giving, but it was developed elaborately.
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In the next period (post-CE), the important texts in Smritis were Manusmriti, Vishnusmriti, Naradasmriti and Yajnavalkya smriti. In this period, the supremacy of the Brahmins was mentioned more assertively. Manu interprets Brahmins as intermediaries between humans and Gods
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Vishnusmriti says that Brahmins are visible deities on earth in contrast to the invisible deities. By the favor of the Brahmins, the gods reside in the heavens. A speech uttered by a Brahmin never comes false.
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In contrast, the Sudras became more socially degraded. Yajnavalkyasmriti allows Vedic rites to the three higher Varnas and Puranic rites to the Sudras. Even the Vaishyas were gradually relegated to the status of the Sudras, as written by Manu.
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Yajnavalkya opines that a king should always respect customs of a caste/jati before settling disputes. This handling of castes is done after discussing how a caste is formed out of mixed marriages. See a list from the Yajnavalkyasmriti.
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The occupations of the varnas were expanded. Yajnavalkya allows a Sudra to take up trade. Brahmins were also allowed to take up trade in certain situations. This shows the absence of rigidity in the occupations of the Varnas from the Vedic period.
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Intermarriage between the different Varnas and then further intermarriage between the jatis/castes created a huge number of possible castes with their own customs and occupations. Ghurye writes about the permutations and combinations of castes.
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This concludes the 3rd period of literary and scriptural anecdotes on the positions of the different varnas and castes. In the last period, 800 CE onwards, the authorities writing on this were Hemadri, Madhava and Kamalakara.
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In the medieval to pre-modern age, the Vaishya was also gradually assimilated with the Sudra. Kamalakara declared that Vaishyas hardly exist in the Kali age. Hemadri made Vaishya's food as much taboo to Brahmins as Sudra's.
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The religious upheaval in Maharashtra aimed at improving the conditions of the Sudras. Two non-Brahmin saints Namdev and Tukaram were involved in delivering devotional sermons. Namamahatmya or uttering names of Gods was salvation for the soul, irrespective of Varna or caste
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Yet, untouchability continued. Parasara wrote that a Brahmin should keep a distance of 1, 2, 3 and 4 yugas from a degraded person, a menstruating woman, a woman who'll give birth and a Chandala. Source: Parasara Dharma Samhita vol II, pt II
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Occupations among the Varnas became more flexible. All 4 varnas can practice trade and craft. Brahmins became rulers (Peshwas). Chera, Chola and Pandya kings were Vellalas. The Nayaks of Madurai were Balijas. And even the Gonds ruled over large areas.
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Groups and castes were described by writers of this period to be formed through mixed unions. Madhava explained creation of 60 such groups as "Innumerable are the caste-like groups that are produced by miscegenation" (English translation)
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Contemporary sources such as inscriptions and traveller's accounts mentioned occupational groups and caste names. Occupational group names were 'vanika'/merchant, 'nemkavanika'/salt-merchant, 'tambulika'/betel-seller, etc. I'll do a separate thread on occupational caste names
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Inscriptions of this period mention castes of Brahmins - such as Radhiya Brahmins in Odisha, Nagar Brahmins in Gujarat, Guguli Brahmins in Dwarka, etc. Apart from 'jati'/caste, another common term was 'jnati', loosely translated to clan.
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British writers sometimes translated jnati to caste. A Chitorgarh inscription in Sanskrit in 1429 mentioned that the composer belonged to the dasapura-jnati or dasapura clan, that later got morphed into Dasapura caste.
Source: Epigraphia Indica vol ii
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Source: Epigraphia Indica vol ii
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Among the foreign travellers, Duarte Barbosa from Portugal mentioned 18 diff castes in Malabar. Abul Fazl mentioned many branches of Vaishya and Sudra - Kayasth, Bhar, Chandel, Kurmi, etc. Later, British captain Hamilton mentioned 65 divisions of Baniyas of Surat, in 1700s
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This shows some of the features of caste in India and the social conditions surrounding the institution of caste. In 2 separate threads, I will show how the British handled caste and Varna in modern history and then how different parts of the world had caste-like institutions
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